Assalamualaikum w.b.t.
This time we are going to discuss about chapter 2 which is Pricing theories. We are going to share some note and briefly explain about this topics based on our understanding.
DEMAND
- What is demand ?
The ability and willingness to buy specific quantities of goods in a given
period of time at a particular price.
- Law of demand
When the price fall , we can see the increase of demand
When the price rises , there will be decrease in demand
- Demand schedule and demand curve
Table 2.1 shows the quantity of coffee demanded at each price level
Combination
|
Price (RM)
|
Quantity (units)
|
A
|
3
|
12
|
B
|
2
|
16
|
Figure 2.1 Demand curve for coffee
The demand curve shows the law of demand . The demand curve must
negative slope because the inverse relationship between price and demand .
Individual demand and market demand
Individual demand : The relationship between the quantity of a
product demanded by a single and its price .
Market demand : Relationship between the total quantity of a product
demanded by all consumers in the market and its price.
- Determinants of demand
-The price is not only the factor that influenced demand either
increase/decrease . Demand is also affected by the following :
1. price of related goods
- Substitute goods are goods or services that can be used in place another
product or services
When the price of chicken meat increase , the quantity demand will decrease and the people will look for another alternative . So , the demand for red meat will increase.
Example :
- Complementary goods are goods that are used in conjunction with another
product . For example :
2. consumer’s Income
When the income increase , consumer’s demand will increase
Normal goods : income increase , demand increase .
Ex: cars, shirts, books
Inferior goods : income increase , demand decrease .
Ex: used cars, low-grade price
3. Taste and fashions
If a product becomes more fashionable , the demand for it will increase and
if the same product becomes outdated , the demand for it will decrease .
For example : change in music , apparel of recreation .
4. population
Demand depends on the size of the total population in the market . A large
number of population will creates a greater demand for goods or services .
Increasing population will shift the supply curve to the right .
5. Festive seasons and climatic condition
During festive seasons, different products will be in high demand .
For example : during Chinese New Year , the demand for mandarin oranges
will be greater .
6. Price expected
If the people think that prices are going to rise in the future , they are likely
to buy more now before the price goes up . So , if the price expected increase ,
demand curve for today will shift to the right ( increase )
- Movement along and shifts in the demand curve
Change in Quantity Demanded (movement)
I ) Situation
-movement along the demand curve
II) Factor
-Occurs when the price of a product changes (own for the price)
III) Evidence
-Upward movement
Decrease in quantity demanded ( from b to a )
-Downward movement
Increase in quantity demanded ( from a to b )
Change in Demand (shift)
I) Situation
-Shift in demand curve whether increase or decrease
II) Factor
-Occurs when there are changes in factor such as population ,
income , price of related goods .
III) Evidence
Increase or decrease in demand curve
-Demand curve shift to right ( increase ) if :
1. Price of substitutes goods increase
2. Price of complement goods decrease
3. Income increases (normal goods)
4. Expected future price increases
5. Number of buyers increases
-Demand curve shift to left ( decrease ) if :
1. Price of substitute goods decreases
2. Price of complement goods increases
3. Income decreases (normal goods)
4. expected future price decreases
5. Number of buyers decrease
SUPPLY
- Definition of supply
The ability and willingness to sell or produce a specific quantities of goods
in a given period of time at a particular price.
Supply = willingness to sell + ability to sell
- Law of supplyPositive relationship between price of the product and quantity supplied
- Supply schedule and Supply curve
The supply schedule for a product is a list of the quantity that a producer is
willing to sell at different prices at one particular time.
Combination
|
Price (RM)
|
Quantity (units)
|
A
|
120
|
5
|
B
|
90
|
4
|
C
|
60
|
3
|
D
|
30
|
2
|
Example of supply schedule
The supply curve relationship shows an upward slope between price &
quantity.Means that, the higher the price, the higher the quantity supplied.
Producers supply more at higher price to increase revenue.
Each point on the curve reflects a direct correlation between quantity
supplied (Q) and price (P).At point B, the quantity supplied will be Q2 & the
price will be P2.
Individual supply & market supply
Individual supply : Relationship between the quantity of a product supplied
by an individual seller & its price.
Market supply : Combination of individual supply.
Individual supply 1 + Individual supply 2 = MARKET SUPPLY
Combination
|
Price (RM)
|
Market Supply
|
Firm A (units)
|
Firm B (units)
|
A
|
15
|
6
|
4
|
2
|
B
|
20
|
9
|
6
|
3
|
- Determinant of Supply
Price of related goods
# Substitute goods
When the price of Maxis increase, the quantity supplied will increase
(law of supply) and the quantity supply of Celcom will be decrease. So, if
price of substitute goods increase, supply curve for current goods will shift
to the left.
# Complementary goods
When the price of Car increases, the quantity of car supplied will increase
and the supply on petrol will also increase since both are complementary
goods. So, if the price of complementary goods increases, supply curve will
shift to the right.
# Cost of production
Increase in wages of labor and price of capital equipment in production
process will increase the cost of production and thus reduce the supply curve.
So, cost of production increase, will shift the supply curve to the left.
# Expected future price
When the government announces an increase in the price of sugar, the
current supply will decrease because the supplier wants to gain a higher
profit with a new price.
# Technological advance
When new technology was introduced in paddy harvesting, the supply of
rice will be increase.So, the technology advance will shift the supply curve
to the right.
# Number of seller
If there is an increase in the number of cafeterias in a FPMBP, the supply
of food & drink will increase.If the number seller increase supply curve will
shift to the right and vice versa.
Change in quantity supply (movement) and change in supply (shift).
Change in Quantity Supply
(movement)
|
Change in Supplied
(shift)
|
|
|
|
i. Situation
Movement along the supply
curve (move point to point)
ii. Factor
Occurs when price of a
product changes
(own price of the product)
Others factors remain constant
iii. Evidence
- Upward movement
increase in quantity supply
Price of the product rises, the
quantity supplied increases.
Example; from point b to point a
- Downward movement
Decrease in quantity supply
Price of the product falls, the
quantity supplied decreases.
Example; from b to c
|
i. Situation
Shift in the supply curve
(new curve)
ii. Factor
Occurs when there are changes
in other factors such as technology,
government policy, price of related
goods, etc.
Price of the product remains
constant
iii. Evidence
Increase or decrease in supply
curve
- Supply curve shift to right
(increase) if; S1 → S2
1. Price of substitutes goods
decreases
2. Price of complement goods
increases
3. Price of input decreases
4. Expected future price
decreases
5. Increases the number of
sellers
- Supply curve shift to left
(decrease) if; S1 → S3
1. Price of substitutes goods
increases
2. Price of complement goods
decrease
3. Price of input increases
4. Expected future price increases
5. Decreases in number of sellers
|
- Definition of Market Equilibrium
Situation when quantity demanded and quantity supplied are equal and
there is no tendency for price or quantity to change. Market equilibrium is determined by the intersection of both the demand and supply curve.
Quantity Demanded (Qd) = Quantity Supply (Qs)
# Shortage (below equilibrium price)
Situation where the quantity demanded is greater than the quantity
supplied. At the price RM10 , buyers are willing to buy 30 units but sellers
only sell 16 units. There is occurring the excess demand. The amount of
excess demand (shortage) is 10 units (Qd – Qs). If the shortage happened, the
rational customer or producer will accept that price and sell back at the
market price.
# Surplus (above equilibrium price)
Surplus is the situation of the quantity supplied is greater than the quantity
demanded. At the price RM P1 , sellers are produce Q3 units but buyers only
buy Q1 units. There is occurring the excess supply. The amount of excess
supply (surplus) is 10 units (Qs – Qd).
- Supply, demand and government policy# Maximum Price or Ceiling PriceA price ceiling is imposed by the government below the equilibriumprice ( market price). That price is not allowed to rise above this levelbut it is allowed to fall below it.Problem : emergence of black marketBlack market is where people ignore the government’s price andquantity controls & sell illegally at whatever price.
# Minimum Price or Floor Price
A price floor is imposed by the government above the equilibrium price
(Market Price). That price is not allowed to fall below this level but is
allowed to rise above it.
- Elasticity
Price elasticity of demand (PED) shows the relationship between price and
quantity demanded and provides a precise calculation of the effect of a
change in price on quantity demanded.
Four types of elasticity :
# Price elasticity of demand (Ep)
Price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of the quantity
demanded due to a change in its price.
Example :
Answer: Q0 = 60, Q1 = 40, P0 = RM2, P1 = RM4
Price increase from RM2.00 TO RM4.00 and quantity demanded falls from
60 units to 40 units.Find the value of elasticity demand
Answer: Q0 = 60, Q1 = 40, P0 = RM2, P1 = RM4
= Q1 – Q0 X P0
P1 -- P0 X Q0
= 40 – 60 x 2
4 - 2 x 60
= - 0.33
# Price Elasticity of Demand
Income elasticity of demand ( Ey)
Income elasticity of demand measures the relationship between a change in
quantity demanded for good X and a change in real income.
Formula
Example :
If income increases from RM2500 to RM3500 and the quantity demanded for
the product increases by 40 to 60 units, calculate the income elasticity of
demand.
Answer: Q1 = 60, Q0 = 40, Y1 = RM3500, Y0 = RM2500
= 60 – 40 x 2500
3500 - 2500 x 40
= 1.25
#Normal Goods
Normal goods have a positive income elasticity of demand so as consumers’
income rises more is demanded at each price i.e. there is an outward shift of
the demand curve
Normal necessities have an income elasticity of demand of
between 0 and +1 for example, if income increases by 10% and the demand
for fresh fruit increases by 4% then the income elasticity is +0.4. Demand is
rising less than proportionately to income.
Luxury goods and services have an income elasticity of demand > +1 i.e.
demand rises more than proportionate to a change in income – for example
a 8% increase in income might lead to a 10% rise in the demand for new
kitchens. The income elasticity of demand in this example is +1.25.
#Inferior Goods
Giffen / inferior goods have a negative income elasticity of demand
meaning that demand falls as income rises. Typically inferior goods or
services exist where superior goods are available if the consumer has the
money to be able to buy it. Examples include the demand for cigarettes,
low-priced own label foods in supermarkets and the demand for
council-owned properties.
#Cross price elasticity of demand ( Eab )
The cross-price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of the
quantity demanded of one good when compared with a change in the price
of another good. Cross elasticity used to determine relationship of the goods
either substitute’s goods, complements goods or independents goods.
Example :
If the quantities demand for chicken increases from 120 to 160 units when
the price of beef increase from RM15 to RM18, calculate the cross elasticity
of demand between chicken and beef.
Answer: Q1A = 160, Q0A = 120, P1B = 18, P0B = 15
= 160 – 120 x 15
18 - 15 x 120
= 1.67
Characterizing Cross-Price Elasticity
Substitutes (E>0). Are goods that can be used in exchange for one another.
Substitutes (E>0). Are goods that can be used in exchange for one another.
For instance, if the price of Pepsi were to increase, the demand for Coca Cola
would increase because people generally see these two goods as substitutes for
one another.
Compliments (E<0). Are goods that people tend to consume hand in hand.
Compliments (E<0). Are goods that people tend to consume hand in hand.
For example, if the price of hamburger meat increases, the demand for
American Cheese will decrease. This is because people commonly use
American Cheese to make cheeseburgers.
Independent (E=0). These are goods that show no relationship. An example
Independent (E=0). These are goods that show no relationship. An example
of independant goods is Halloween costumes and marble flooring.
























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